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INTRODUCTION

The cultivation of wisdom, as we have seen, aims at the realization of Nibbāna. The Nikāyas stipulate a fixed series of stages through which a person passes on the way toward the attainment of Nibbāna. In passing through these stages one evolves from an “uninstructed worldling,” blind to the truths of the Dhamma, into an arahant, a liberated one, who has attained full comprehension of the Four Noble Truths and realized Nibbāna in this present life. I have already referred to several of these stages in the earlier chapters of this book. In the present chapter we will explore them in a more systematic manner.

On entering the irreversible path to the attainment of Nibbāna, one becomes a noble person (ariyapuggala), the word “noble” (ariya) here denoting spiritual nobility. There are four major types of noble persons. Each stage is divided into two phases: the path (magga) and its fruition (phala).1 In the path phase, one is said to be practicing for the attainment of a particular fruition, which one is bound to realize within that same life; in the resultant phase, one is said to be established in that fruition. Thus the four major types of noble persons actually comprise four pairs or eight types of noble individuals. As enumerated in Text X,1(1), these are: (1) one practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-entry, (2) the stream-enterer, (3) one practicing for the realization of the fruit of once-returning, (4) the once-returner, (5) one practicing for the realization of the fruit of nonreturning, (6) the nonreturner, (7) one practicing for arahantship, (8) the arahant. Text X,1(2) grades these eight according to the relative strength of their spiritual faculties, so that those at each subsequent stage possess stronger faculties than those at the preceding stage. The first seven persons are collectively known as sekhas, trainees or disciples in the higher training; the arahant is called the asekha, the one beyond training.

The four main stages themselves are defined in two ways: (1) by way of the defilements eradicated by the path leading to the corresponding fruit; and (2) by way of the destiny after death that awaits one who has realized that particular fruit. Text X,1(3) gives standard definitions of the four types that mention both the defilements abandoned and their future destiny.

The Nikāyas group the defilements abandoned into a set of ten fetters (saṃyojana). The stream-enterer abandons the first three fetters: identity view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi), that is, the view of a truly existent self either as identical with the five aggregates or as existing in some relation to them; doubt (vicikicchā) about the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, and the training; and the wrong grasp of rules and observances (sīlabbata-parāmāsa), the belief that mere external observances, particularly religious rituals and ascetic practices, can lead to liberation. The stream-enterer is assured of attaining full enlightenment in at most seven more existences, which will all take place either in the human realm or the heavenly worlds. The stream-enterer will never undergo an eighth existence and is forever freed from rebirth in the three lower realms—the hells, the realm of afflicted spirits, and the animal realm.

The once-returner (sakadāgāmī) does not eradicate any new fetters. He or she has eliminated the three fetters that the stream-enterer has destroyed and additionally attenuates the three unwholesome roots—lust, hatred, and delusion—so that they do not arise often and, when they do arise, do not become obsessive.2 As the name implies, the once-returner will come back to this world only one more time and then make an end to suffering.

The nonreturner (anāgāmī) eradicates the five “lower fetters.” That is, in addition to the three fetters eliminated by the stream-enterer, the nonreturner eradicates two additional fetters, sensual lust and ill will. Because nonreturners have eradicated sensual lust, they have no ties binding them to the sensual realm of existence. They thus take birth in the form realm (rūpadhātu), generally in one of five planes called the “pure abodes” (suddhāvāsa) reserved exclusively for the rebirth of nonreturners. They attain final Nibbāna there, without ever returning to the sensual realm.

The nonreturner, however, is still bound by the five “higher fetters”: desire for existence in the form realm, desire for existence in the formless realm, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance. Those who cut off the five higher fetters have no more ties binding them to conditioned existence. These are the arahants, who have destroyed all defilements and are “completely liberated through final knowledge.”

The Four Classes of Noble Disciples

By Way of Fetters Eliminated and Types of Rebirth Remaining

Besides the four main classes of noble persons, the Nikāyas sometimes mention a pair ranked just below the stream-enterer—see Text X,1(3). These two—called the Dhamma-follower (dhammānusārī) and the faith-follower (saddhānusārī)—are actually two types belonging to the eighth category of noble disciples, the person practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-entry. The Nikāyas include this pair to show that those on the way to stream-entry can be distinguished into two classes by way of their dominant faculty. The Dhamma-follower is one for whom wisdom is dominant, the faith-follower one for whom faith is dominant. It may be significant that at this stage prior to the first fruition, it is only faith and wisdom and not the other three faculties—energy, mindfulness, and concentration—that serve to distinguish disciples into different types.3

The explanation of the classes of noble disciples found in the above text, an extract from the Alagaddūpama Sutta (MN 22), may convey the impression that all those who attain these stages are monks. This, however, is by no means the case. The Alagaddūpama extract is worded in this way only because it is addressed to monks. Text X,1(4) corrects this impression and provides a clearer picture of how the classes of noble disciples are distributed among the groups of the Buddha’s followers. As an abiding state, arahantship is reserved for monks and nuns. This does not mean that only monks and nuns can attain arahantship; the suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal. However, such disciples either attain arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order very soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving.

In contrast, nonreturners can continue to dwell as householders. While they continue to live as lay disciples, they have eradicated sensual desire and thus necessarily observe celibacy. They are described as “lay followers … clothed in white, leading lives of celibacy, who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world.” Though the suttas do not explicitly say this, it is reasonable to suppose that those disciples practicing to attain the fruit of nonreturning also observe full-time celibacy. Lay stream-enterers and once-returners, however, are not necessarily celibate. In the sutta the Buddha describes them as “lay followers … clothed in white, enjoying sensual pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation.” Thus, while some stream-enterers and once-returners may observe celibacy, this is by no means typical of these two classes.

The Nikāyas occasionally employ another scheme for classifying noble disciples, one that makes the dominant faculty rather than the level of attainment alone the basis for differentiation. The main source for this scheme is a passage in the Kīṭāgiri Sutta included here as Text X,1(5). This method of classification divides arahants into two categories: those liberated in both ways (ubhatobhāgavimutta) and those liberated by wisdom (paññāvimutta). The former are called “liberated in both ways” because they are liberated from form by their mastery over the formless meditations and liberated from all defilements by their attainment of arahantship. Those arahants “liberated by wisdom” have not mastered the formless attainments but have gained the final fruit by the power of their wisdom combined with degrees of concentration lower than the formless states.

Those who have attained any of the lower stages, from stream-entry up to and including the path to arahantship, are divided into three categories. The “body-witness” (kāyasakkhī) is one at any of these stages who has mastered the formless attainments; the “one attained-to-view” (diṭṭhippatta), one at any of these stages who lacks the formless attainments and gives prominence to wisdom; and the “one liberated by faith” (saddhāvimutta), one at any of these stages who lacks the formless attainments and gives prominence to faith. The last two persons in this typology are the Dhamma-follower and the faith-follower explained above.

It should be noted that this scheme does not mention a person at the path of stream-entry who possesses the formless attainments. This should not be taken to mean that such a type is in principle excluded but only that such a type was considered irrelevant for purposes of classification. It seems that at this preparatory stage, the allotment of a separate category to one with outstanding skills in concentration was deemed unnecessary.

In the selection of texts, I next take up the main types for individual consideration. I begin with the stream-enterer, but first some preliminary comments are necessary. In the Nikāyas, the great majority of human beings are called “uninstructed worldlings” (assutavā puthujjana). Uninstructed worldlings have no regard for the Buddha and his teaching, no understanding of the Dhamma or dedication to the practice. The purpose of the Buddha’s path is to lead uninstructed worldlings to the attainment of the Deathless, and the stages of realization are the steps toward the completion of this process. The process of transformation generally begins when one encounters the Buddha’s teaching and gains confidence in the Buddha as the Enlightened One. One must then acquire a clear understanding of the Dhamma, undertake the precepts, and enter upon the systematic practice of the path. In the suttas such a person is called a noble disciple (ariyasāvaka) in a broad sense of the term, not necessarily in the narrow, technical sense of one who has already reached the paths and fruits.

Later tradition calls a person who has faith in the Dhamma and aspires to reach the state of stream-entry a virtuous worldling (kalyāṇaputhujjana). To reach the attainment of stream-entry, the aspiring disciple should cultivate the “four factors leading to stream-entry.” As Text X,2(1) explains, these are: associating with wise and virtuous spiritual guides; listening to the true Dhamma; attending carefully to things (for example, by way of gratification, danger, and escape); and practicing in accordance with the Dhamma (by undertaking the threefold training in moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom). The peak of the training undertaken by the aspiring disciple is the development of insight: the thorough contemplation of the aggregates, sense bases, and elements as impermanent, bound up with suffering, and devoid of a substantial self. At a certain point, when insight reaches its peak, the disciple’s understanding will undergo a major transition, which marks the entry upon “the fixed course of rightness,” the true Noble Eightfold Path that leads irreversibly to Nibbāna. As Text X,2(2) puts it, such a disciple has risen up from the plane of worldlings and reached the plane of the noble ones. Though not yet a stream-enterer, a person at this stage cannot pass away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.

As we have already seen, among disciples who attain the path there is a distinction between those who arrive through faith, called faith-followers, and those who arrive through wisdom, called Dhamma-followers. But while faith-followers and Dhamma-followers differ by way of their dominant faculty, they are alike in that both must further cultivate the path they have entered. Once they know and see the essence of the Dhamma—when they “obtain the vision of the Dhamma” and “make the breakthrough to the Dhamma”—they become stream-enterers, bound to reach full enlightenment and attain final Nibbāna in a maximum of seven more lives; see Text X,2(3). Stream-enterers eradicate the first three fetters and acquire the eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path. They also have “four factors of stream-entry”: confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and Saṅgha, and “the moral virtues dear to the noble ones,” that is, firm adherence to the five precepts; see Texts X,2(4)–(5).

Having seen the truth of the Dhamma, the stream-enterer faces the challenge of cultivating this vision in order to eliminate the remaining defilements. The next major milestone, the attainment of the plane of the once-returner, does not eliminate any defilements completely. However, it does attenuate the three root defilements—lust, hatred, and delusion—to a degree sufficient to ensure that the disciple will return to “this world,” the sense-sphere realm of existence, only one more time and then make an end to suffering.

A disciple who attains either of the first two stages, stream-enterer or once-returner, need not remain fixed there but can advance to the two higher stages. Descriptions of attainment in the Nikāyas suggest that it is also possible for a virtuous worldling with extremely sharp faculties to advance directly to the stage of nonreturner. The state of nonreturner is always said to be attained simply through the destruction of the five lower fetters, the three fetters eradicated by the stream-enterer along with sensual lust and ill will. From the Nikāyas, it appears that one with extremely sharp wisdom can achieve this stage at a single stroke. The commentaries, however, explain that in such a case the person actually passes through the first two paths and fruits in very quick succession before reaching the third path and fruit.

According to Text X,3(1), to abandon the five lower fetters, a monk first attains one of the four jhānas or one of the three lower formless attainments; the constituent factors of the fourth formless attainment are too subtle to serve as objects of insight. Directing his attention to the factors constituting the jhāna or formless attainment,4 he subsumes them under the five aggregates: as included in form (omitted in relation to the formless attainments), feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. Having done so, he contemplates these factors, now classified into the five aggregates, as marked by the three characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and nonself (expanded into eleven headings). As contemplation advances, at a certain point his mind turns away from all conditioned things and focuses upon the deathless element, Nibbāna. If he has sharp faculties and can relinquish all attachments on the spot, he attains arahantship, the destruction of the taints; but if he cannot yet give up all attachments, he attains the state of nonreturning.

The Buddha recognized differences in the approaches individuals take to achieving the final goal, and in Text X,3(2) he divides persons into four categories with respect to its attainment. The four are obtained through the permutations of two pairs. He first distinguishes disciples on the basis of the strength of their spiritual faculties. Those with strong faculties reach final Nibbāna in this very life. Those with relatively weak faculties attain final Nibbāna in the next life, and thus presumably expire as nonreturners. The other pair distinguishes disciples by their mode of development. One class takes the “difficult” approach, which uses meditation subjects that generate sharp wisdom and lead directly to disenchantment and dispassion. The other class takes the smoother and more pleasant route leading through the four jhānas. These two types correspond roughly to those who give emphasis to insight and those who give emphasis to serenity.

A short sutta in the Sotāpattisaṃyutta, Text X,3(3), relates the story of Dīghāvu, a youth who took the difficult route emphasizing insight to the stage of nonreturner. Dīghāvu was lying on his deathbed when the Buddha came to him and asked him to train in the four factors of stream-entry. Dīghāvu said that he was already endowed with these factors, indicating thereby that he was a stream-enterer. The Buddha then instructed him to develop “six things that partake of true knowledge.” He evidently heeded the Buddha’s advice, for shortly after he died the Buddha declared him to have expired as a nonreturner. Though it is possible that Dīghāvu had already gained the jhānas and thus did not need to be instructed in their practice, it is also possible that he attained the stage of nonreturner entirely through the power of the deep insight arisen from these six contemplations.

Text X,3(4) makes further distinctions among those who attain arahantship and the stage of nonreturner. Such suttas point to the great variety that can exist even among those at the same spiritual level. It is because he was able to make such distinctions that the Buddha was said to possess perfect understanding of the diversity in the faculties of sentient beings.

Since nonreturners have eradicated the five lower fetters, they are no longer bound to the sensual realm of existence. However, they are still not entirely liberated from the cycle of rebirths but are still bound by the five higher fetters: desire for existence in the form realm, desire for existence in the formless realm, the conceit “I am,” subtle restlessness, and ignorance. The conceit “I am” (asmimāna) differs from identity view, the view of self (sakkāyadiṭṭhi), to which it is partly akin. The view of self affirms an enduring self existing in relation to the five aggregates, either as identical with them, or as their inner core, or as their owner and master. But the conceit “I am” lacks a clear conceptual content. It lurks at the base of the mind as a vague, shapeless, but imperious sense of the “I” as a concrete reality. Though the view of self is already eliminated at the stage of stream-entry, the conceit “I am” persists in noble disciples even up to the stage of nonreturner. This is the point of the incisive Khemaka Sutta—Text X,4(1)—with its two beautiful similes of the flower’s scent and the laundered cloth. The noble disciples differ from ordinary people in that they do not buy into the conceit “I am.” They recognize the conceit “I am” as a mere figment of the imagination, a false notion that does not point to a self, to a truly existent “I.” But they have not completely overcome it.

The subtle attachment and the residual sense of “I am” that persist in the nonreturner both stem from ignorance. To reach the end of the path, the nonreturner must obliterate the remaining segment of ignorance and dispel all traces of craving and conceit. The critical point when ignorance, craving, and conceit are eradicated marks the transition from the stage of nonreturner to arahantship. The difference between the two can be a subtle one, and therefore standards for distinguishing them are necessary. In Text X,4(2) the Buddha proposes several criteria by which a trainee and an arahant can determine their respective standings. One of particular interest concerns their relationship to the five spiritual faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. The trainee sees with wisdom the goal in which the faculties culminate—namely, Nibbāna—but cannot dwell in it. The arahant sees with wisdom the supreme goal and can also dwell in that goal.

The texts that follow offer different perspectives on the arahant. Text X,4(3) characterizes the arahant with a series of metaphors, elucidated in the same passage. Text X,4(4) enumerates nine things that an arahant cannot do. In Text X,4(5), the Venerable Sāriputta describes the arahant’s imperturbability in the face of powerful sense objects, and in Text X,4(6) he enumerates the ten powers of an arahant. Text X,4(7), an excerpt from the Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta, begins as an account of the attainment of arahantship through the contemplation of the elements; the relevant passage was included in the previous chapter as Text IX,4(3)(c). The exposition then turns to the “four foundations” (cattāro adhiṭṭhāna) of the arahant, here spoken of as “the sage at peace” (muni santo). Text X,4(8), the last in this section, is a poem extolling the arahant’s distinguished qualities.

The first and foremost of the arahants is the Buddha himself, to whom the last section of this chapter is devoted. The section is titled “The Tathāgata,” the word the Buddha used when referring to himself in his archetypal role as the discoverer and bringer of liberating truth. The word can be resolved in two ways: taken as tathā āgata, “Thus Come,” it implies that the Buddha has come in accordance with an established pattern (which the commentaries interpret to mean the fulfillment of the ten spiritual perfections—the pāramīs—and the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment); taken as tathā gata, “Thus Gone,” it implies that he has gone in accordance with an established pattern (which the commentaries interpret to mean that he has gone to Nibbāna by the complete practice of serenity, insight, the paths, and the fruits).

Later forms of Buddhism draw extreme distinctions between Buddhas and arahants, but in the Nikāyas this distinction is not as sharp as one might expect if one takes later texts as the benchmark of interpretation. On the one hand, the Buddha is an arahant, as is evident from the standard verse of homage to the Blessed One (iti pi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammā sambuddho …); on the other, arahants are buddha, in the sense that they have attained full enlightenment, sambodhi, by awakening to the same truths that the Buddha himself realized. The proper distinction, then, is that between a sammā sambuddha or Perfectly Enlightened Buddha, and an arahant who has attained enlightenment and liberation as a disciple (sāvaka) of a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha. However, to avoid such complex locutions, we will resort to the common practice of phrasing the distinction as that between a Buddha and an arahant.

What then is the relationship between the two? Is the difference between them primarily one of temporal sequence, with perhaps a few additional capacities specific to a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha? Or is the difference between them so vast that they should be considered distinct types? The Nikāyas display an interesting, even tantalizing, ambivalence on this question, as the texts included here illustrate. Text X,5(1) raises the question about the difference between “the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One” and “a monk liberated by wisdom”; apparently the expression bhikkhu paññāvimutta is used here in a sense applicable to any arahant disciple rather than solely to one who lacks the formless attainments (that is, in an inclusive sense, not as a wisdom-liberated arahant contrasted with a both-ways liberated arahant). The answer the text gives expresses the difference in terms of role and temporal priority. A Buddha has the function of discovering and expounding the path, and he also possesses a unique familiarity with the intricacies of the path not shared by his disciples. His disciples follow the path he reveals and attain enlightenment afterward, under his guidance.

The polemical literature of later Buddhism sometimes depicts the Buddha as motivated by great compassion and his arahant disciples as cool and aloof, indifferent to the plight of their fellow beings. As if to forestall this criticism, Text X,5(2) states that not only the Buddha but arahants as well as learned and virtuous disciples still in training arise for the welfare of many people, live their lives out of compassion for the world, and teach the Dhamma for the good, well-being, and happiness of their fellow beings, devas as well as humans. Thus, if this text is taken as authoritative, it cannot be claimed that compassion and altruistic concern are qualities that distinguish Buddhas from arahants.

Yet Text X,5(3) gives us another perspective on this question. Here, the Buddha challenges the Venerable Sāriputta’s “bellowing utterance” by asking him whether he fully knows the moral discipline, qualities (perhaps concentration), wisdom, meditative dwellings, and liberation of the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. To this the great disciple can only answer in the negative. But Sāriputta declares that he knows that all the Buddhas of the three periods of time attain perfect enlightenment by abandoning the five hindrances, by establishing their minds in the four establishments of mindfulness, and by developing correctly the seven factors of enlightenment.

These, however, are aspects of the path that Buddhas have fulfilled in common with arahant disciples. Beyond this, the Buddhas possess certain qualities that elevate them above even the foremost of the arahants. From the Nikāyas, their superiority seems to rest on two main pillars: first, their being is essentially “for others” in a way that the most altruistic of the arahant disciples can only emulate but never equal; and second, their knowledges and spiritual powers are much greater than those of the arahant disciples.

The Buddha states that even monks fully liberated in mind, who possess “unsurpassable vision, practice, and liberation,” venerate the Tathāgata, because his attainment of enlightenment helps others to attain enlightenment, his deliverance helps others gain deliverance, his realization of Nibbāna enables others to realize Nibbāna (MN 35.26; I 235). In Text X,5(4), we encounter two sets of qualities considered special endowments of a Buddha, enabling him to “roar his lion’s roar in the assemblies” and set rolling the wheel of Dhamma. These are the ten Tathāgata’s powers and the four grounds of self-confidence. Though several of these powers are shared by disciples, in their totality these two sets are distinctive of a Buddha and equip him to guide and instruct beings in accordance with their individual aptitudes and dispositions. The four grounds of self-confidence confer upon the Buddha a boldness of authority, a magnitude of mission, that only the founder of a religion can exercise. Text X,5(5) compares the Tathāgata to the sun and moon, for his appearance in the world is the manifestation of great light and dispels the darkness of ignorance. Text X,5(6) compares him to a man who rescues a herd of deer from calamity, thus portraying him as the great benefactor of humanity.

With Text X,5(7) we return to the metaphor of the lion’s roar, introduced earlier, with a lengthy simile that compares the Buddha’s proclamation of universal impermanence to the roar of a lion when he emerges from his den. Like the closing passage of the First Sermon (see Text II,5), this text draws our attention to the cosmic scope of the Buddha’s mission. His message extends not only to human beings, but reaches up to the high heavenly realms, shaking the delusions of the deities.

Finally, Text X,5(8) offers us a series of brief explanations why the Buddha is called the Tathāgata. He is called the Tathāgata because he has fully awakened to the nature of the world, its origin, its cessation, and the way to its cessation; because he has fully comprehended all phenomena within the world, whether seen, heard, sensed, or cognized; because his speech is invariably true; because he acts in conformity with his words; and because he wields supreme mastery within the world. The text ends with an inspired poem, probably attached by the compilers of the canon, which celebrates the Buddha as the supreme refuge for the world.

The personal devotion toward the Tathāgata expressed by both the prose text and the poem introduces us to the warm current of religious feeling that runs through Early Buddhism, always present just beneath its cool and composed exterior. This religious dimension makes the Dhamma more than just a philosophy or an ethical system or a body of meditative techniques. Animating it from within, drawing its followers upward and onward, it makes the Dhamma a complete spiritual path—a path rooted in faith in a particular person who is at once the supreme teacher of liberating truth and the foremost example of the truth he teaches.

1. THE FIELD OF MERIT FOR THE WORLD

(1) Eight Persons Worthy of Gifts

“Monks, these eight persons are worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutations, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world. What eight?

“The stream-enterer, the one practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-entry; the once-returner, the one practicing for the realization of the fruit of once-returning; the nonreturner, the one practicing for the realization of the fruit of the nonreturning; the arahant, the one practicing for arahantship.

“Monks, these eight persons are worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutations, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.”

(AN 8:59; IV 292)

(2) Differentiation by Faculties

“Monks, there are these five faculties. What five? The faculty of faith, the faculty of energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, the faculty of wisdom. These are the five faculties.

“One who has completed and fulfilled these five faculties is an arahant. If they are weaker than that, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of arahantship; if still weaker, one is a nonreturner; if still weaker, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of nonreturning; if still weaker, one is a once-returner; if still weaker, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of once-returning; if still weaker, one is a stream-enterer; if still weaker, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-entry.

“But, monks, I say that one in whom these five faculties are completely and totally absent is ‘an outsider, one standing amid the worldlings.’”

(SN 48:18; V 202)

(3) In the Dhamma Well Expounded

42. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear, open, evident, and free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, which is clear, open, evident, and free of patchwork, those monks who are arahants with taints destroyed—who have lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely liberated through final knowledge—have no round for manifestation.5

43. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear … free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those monks who have abandoned the five lower fetters are all due to be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna, without ever returning from that world.6

44. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear … free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those monks who have abandoned three fetters and attenuated lust, hate, and delusion are all once-returners, returning once to this world to make an end of suffering.

45. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear … free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those monks who have abandoned three fetters are all stream-enterers, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as their destination.7

46. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear … free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those monks who are Dhamma-followers or faith-followers all have enlightenment as their destination.8

47. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear, open, evident, and free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those who have sufficient faith in me, sufficient love for me, all have heaven as their destination.”9

(from MN 22: Alagaddūpama Sutta; I 140–42)

(4) The Completeness of the Teaching

6. “When a monk has abandoned craving, cut it off at the root, made it like a palm stump, done away with it so that it is no longer subject to future arising, that monk is an arahant with taints destroyed, one who has lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and is completely liberated through final knowledge.”

7. “Apart from Master Gotama, is there any monk, Master Gotama’s disciple, who by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, in this present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints?”10

“There are, Vaccha, not only one hundred, or two or three or four or five hundred, but far more monks, my disciples, who by realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints.”

8. “Apart from Master Gotama and the monks, is there any nun, Master Gotama’s disciple, who by realizing it for herself with direct knowledge, in this present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints?”

“There are not only one hundred … or five hundred, but far more nuns, my disciples, who by realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints.”

9. “Apart from Master Gotama and the monks and nuns, is there any male lay follower, Master Gotama’s disciple, clothed in white leading a life of celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world?”11

“There are not only one hundred … or five hundred, but far more male lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white leading lives of celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world.”

10. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy, is there any male lay follower, Master Gotama’s disciple, clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures, who carries out his instruction, responds to his advice, has gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation?”12

“There are not only one hundred … or five hundred, but far more male lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation.”

11. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleasures, is there any female lay follower, Master Gotama’s disciple, clothed in white leading a life of celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world?”

“There are not only one hundred … or five hundred, but far more female lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white leading lives of celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world.”

12. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleasures, and the female lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy, is there any one female lay follower, Master Gotama’s disciple, clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures, who carries out his instruction, responds to his advice, has gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation?”

“There are not only one hundred … or five hundred, but far more female lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have gone beyond doubt, become free of perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation.”

13. “Master Gotama, if only Master Gotama were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no monks were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama and monks are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama and monks were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no nuns were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama, monks, and nuns are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks, and nuns were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no male lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no male lay followers clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleasures, are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white … were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no female lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay followers clothed in white … and female lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay followers clothed in white … and female lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no female lay followers clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleasures, and female lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleasures, are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect.

14. “Just as the river Ganges inclines toward the sea, slopes toward the sea, flows toward the sea, and reaches the sea, so too Master Gotama’s assembly with its homeless ones and its householders inclines toward Nibbāna, slopes toward Nibbāna, flows toward Nibbāna, and reaches Nibbāna.”

(from MN 73: Mahāvacchagotta Sutta; I 490–93)

(5) Seven Kinds of Noble Persons

11. “Monks, I do not say of all monks that they still have work to do with diligence; nor do I say of all monks that they have no more work to do with diligence.

12. “I do not say of those monks who are arahants with taints destroyed, who have lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely liberated through final knowledge, that they still have work to do with diligence. Why is that? They have done their work with diligence; they are no more capable of being negligent.

13. “I say of those monks who are trainees, whose minds have not yet reached the goal, and who are still aspiring to the unsurpassed security from bondage, that they still have work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when those venerable ones make use of suitable lodgings and associate with good friends and nurture their spiritual faculties, they may, by realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme goal of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for these monks, I say that they still have work to do with diligence.

14. “Monks, there are seven kinds of persons to be found existing in the world. What seven? They are: one liberated-in-both ways, one liberated-by-wisdom, a body-witness, one attained-to-view, one liberated-by-faith, a Dhamma-follower, and a faith-follower.

15. “What kind of person is one liberated-in-both-ways? Here some person contacts with the body and dwells in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called one liberated-in-both-ways.13 I do not say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? He has done his work with diligence; he is no more capable of being negligent.

16. “What kind of person is one liberated-by-wisdom? Here some person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called one liberated-by-wisdom.14 I do not say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? He has done his work with diligence; he is no more capable of being negligent.

17. “What kind of person is a body-witness? Here some person contacts with the body and dwells in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called a body-witness.15 I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one makes use of suitable lodgings and associates with good friends and nurtures his spiritual faculties, he may, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme goal of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.

18. “What kind of person is one attained-to-view? Here some person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, and he has reviewed and examined with wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata. This kind of person is called one attained-to-view.16 I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one … into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.

19. “What kind of person is one liberated-by-faith? Here some person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, and his faith is planted, rooted, and established in the Tathāgata. This kind of person is called one liberated-by-faith.17 I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one … into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.

20. “What kind of person is a Dhamma-follower? Here some person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are not yet destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, but those teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata are accepted after being pondered to a sufficient degree with wisdom. Furthermore, he has these qualities: the faith faculty, the energy faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the concentration faculty, and the wisdom faculty. This kind of person is called a Dhamma-follower.18 I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one … into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.

21. “What kind of person is a faith-follower? Here some person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are not yet destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, yet he has sufficient faith in and love for the Tathāgata. Furthermore, he has these qualities: the faith faculty, the energy faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the concentration faculty, and the wisdom faculty. This kind of person is called a faith-follower. I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one makes use of suitable lodgings and associates with good friends and nurtures his spiritual faculties, he may, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme goal of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.”

(from MN 70: Kīṭāgiri Sutta; I 477–79)

2. STREAM-ENTRY

(1) The Four Factors Leading to Stream-Entry

The Blessed One said to the Venerable Sāriputta: “Sāriputta, it is said: ‘A factor for stream-entry, a factor for stream-entry.’ What now, Sāriputta, is a factor for stream-entry?”

“Association with superior persons, venerable sir, is a factor for stream-entry. Hearing the true Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry. Careful attention is a factor for stream-entry. Practice in accordance with the Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.”

“Good, good, Sāriputta! It is as you say. Sāriputta, it is said: ‘The stream, the stream.’ What now is the stream?”

“This Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is the stream; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.”

“Good, good, Sāriputta! It is as you say. Sāriputta, it is said: ‘A stream-enterer, a stream-enterer.’ What now is a stream-enterer?”

“One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is called a stream-enterer: this venerable one of such a name and clan.”

“Good, good, Sāriputta! One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path is a stream-enterer: this venerable one of such a name and clan.”

(SN 55:5; V 410–11)

(2) Entering the Fixed Course of Rightness

“Monks, the eye is impermanent, changing, undergoing alteration. The ear … The nose … The tongue … The body … The mind is impermanent, changing, undergoing alteration. One who places faith in these teachings and resolves on them thus is called a faith-follower, one who has entered the fixed course of rightness,19 entered the plane of superior persons, transcended the plane of the worldlings. He is incapable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in hell, in the animal realm, or in the domain of afflicted spirits; he is incapable of passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.20

“One for whom these teachings are accepted thus after being pondered to a sufficient degree with wisdom is called a Dhamma-follower, one who has entered the fixed course of rightness, entered the plane of superior persons, transcended the plane of the worldlings. He is incapable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in hell, in the animal realm, or in the domain of afflicted spirits; he is incapable of passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.

“One who knows and sees these teachings thus is called a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination.”21

(SN 25:1; III 225)

(3) The Breakthrough to the Dhamma

The Blessed One took up a little bit of soil in his fingernail and addressed the monks thus:

“Monks, what do you think, which is more: the little bit of soil that I have taken up in my fingernail or this great earth?”

“Venerable sir, the great earth is more. The little bit of soil that the Blessed One has taken up in his fingernail is trifling. It does not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth part of the great earth.”

“So too, monks, for a noble disciple, a person accomplished in view who has made the breakthrough, the suffering that has been destroyed and eliminated is more, while that which remains is trifling. The latter does not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth part of the former mass of suffering that has been destroyed and eliminated, since there is a maximum of seven more lives. Of such great benefit, monks, is the breakthrough to the Dhamma, of such great benefit is it to obtain the vision of the Dhamma.”22

(SN 13:1; II 133–34)

(4) The Four Factors of a Stream-Enterer

“Monks, a noble disciple who possesses four things is a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination.

“What four? Here, monks, a noble disciple possesses confirmed confidence23 in the Buddha thus: ‘The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ He possesses confirmed confidence in the Dhamma thus: ‘The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be personally experienced by the wise.’ He possesses confirmed confidence in the Saṅgha thus: ‘The Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is practicing the good way, practicing the straight way, practicing the true way, practicing the proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals—this Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.’ He possesses the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration.

“A noble disciple, monks, who possesses these four things is a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination.”

(SN 55:2; V 343–44)

(5) Better than Sovereignty over the Earth

“Monks, although a wheel-turning monarch, having exercised supreme sovereignty over the four continents, with the breakup of the body, after death, is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world, in the company of the devas of the Tāvatiṃsa realm, and there in the Nandana Grove, accompanied by a retinue of celestial nymphs, he enjoys himself supplied and endowed with the five cords of celestial sensual pleasure, still, as he does not possess four things, he is not freed from hell, the animal realm, and the domain of afflicted spirits, not freed from the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower world.24

Although, monks, a noble disciple maintains himself by lumps of almsfood and wears rag-robes, still, as he possesses four things, he is freed from hell, the animal realm, and the domain of afflicted spirits, freed from the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower world. What four things? Confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and the moral virtues dear to the noble ones. And, monks, between the obtaining of sovereignty over the four continents and the obtaining of the four things, the obtaining of sovereignty over the four continents is not worth a sixteenth part of the obtaining of the four things.”

(SN 55:1; V 342)

3. NONRETURNING

(1) Abandoning the Five Lower Fetters

7. “There is a path and way, Ānanda, to the abandoning of the five lower fetters. That anyone, without relying on that path and way, might know or see or abandon the five lower fetters—this is not possible. Just as when there is a great tree standing possessed of heartwood, it is not possible that anyone might cut out its heartwood without cutting through its bark and sapwood, so too, in the case of abandoning the five lower fetters.

“There is a path and way, Ānanda, to the abandoning of the five lower fetters. That someone, by relying on that path and way, might know and see and abandon the five lower fetters—this is possible. Just as, when there is a great tree standing possessed of heartwood, it is possible that someone might cut out its heartwood by cutting through its bark and sapwood, so too, in the case of abandoning the five lower fetters.

8. “Suppose, Ānanda, the river Ganges were full of water right up to the brim so that crows could drink from it, and then a feeble man came thinking: ‘By swimming across the stream with my arms, I shall get safely across to the further shore of this river Ganges’; yet he would not be able to get safely across. So too, when the Dhamma is being taught to someone for the cessation of identity, if his mind does not enter into it and acquire confidence, steadiness, and resolution, then he can be regarded as like the feeble man.25

“Suppose, Ānanda, the river Ganges were full of water right up to the brim so that crows could drink from it, and then a strong man came thinking: ‘By swimming across the stream with my arms, I shall get safely across to the further shore of this river Ganges’; and he would be able to get safely across. So too, when the Dhamma is being taught to someone for the cessation of identity, if his mind enters into it and acquires confidence, steadiness, and resolution, then he can be regarded as like the strong man.

9. “And what, Ānanda, is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters? Here, with seclusion from acquisitions,26 with the abandoning of unwholesome states, with the complete tranquilizing of bodily inertia, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion.

“Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent, as suffering, as a disease, as a tumor, as a barb, as a calamity, as an affliction, as alien, as disintegrating, as empty, as nonself.27 He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless element thus: ‘This is the peaceful, this is the sublime, that is, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna.’28 If he is steady in that, he attains the destruction of the taints. But if he does not attain the destruction of the taints, then through that very desire for the Dhamma, that delight in the Dhamma, with the destruction of the five lower fetters he becomes one due to be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world.29 This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters.

10–12. “Again, with the subsiding of thought and examination, a monk enters and dwells in the second jhāna.… Again, with the fading away as well of rapture, a monk … enters and dwells in the third jhāna.… Again, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain … a monk enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.

“Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent … as nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless element… This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters.

13. “Again, with the complete transcending of perceptions of forms, with the passing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with nonattention to perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite,’ a monk enters upon and dwells in the base of the infinity of space.

“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness,30 he sees those states as impermanent … as nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless element … This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters.

14. “Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite,’ a monk enters upon and dwells in the base of the infinity of consciousness.

“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent … as nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless element… This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters.

15. “Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing,’ a monk enters upon and dwells in the base of nothingness.

“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent, as suffering, as a disease, as a tumor, as a barb, as a calamity, as an affliction, as alien, as disintegrating, as void, as nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless element thus: ‘This is the peaceful, this is the sublime, that is, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna.’ If he is steady in that, he attains the destruction of the taints. But if he does not attain the destruction of the taints, then through that very desire for the Dhamma, that delight in the Dhamma, with the destruction of the five lower fetters he becomes one due to be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna without ever returning from that world. This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower fetters.”

(from MN 64: Mahāmāluṅkya Sutta; I 434–37)

(2) Four Kinds of Persons

“There are, O monks, four kinds of persons found existing in the world. What four?

“Here, monks, in this very life a person attains Nibbāna through volitional exertion. Here, with the breakup of the body, a person attains final Nibbāna through volitional exertion. Here, in this very life a person attains final Nibbāna without volitional exertion. Here, with the breakup of the body, a person attains final Nibbāna without volitional exertion.

“And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbāna through volitional exertion? Here, a monk dwells contemplating the unattractiveness of the body, perceiving repulsiveness in food, perceiving discontent with the entire world, contemplating impermanence in all formations; and the perception of death is well established within him.31 He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the powers of faith, moral shame, fear of wrongdoing, energy, and wisdom. These five faculties are extremely strong in him: the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. Because of the strength of these five faculties, in this very life he attains Nibbāna through volitional exertion. This is how a person, in this very life, attains Nibbāna through volitional exertion.

“And how, monks, does a person, with the breakup of the body, attain Nibbāna through volitional exertion? Here, a monk dwells contemplating the unattractiveness of the body … and the perception of death is well established within him. He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the powers of faith … and wisdom. These five faculties are relatively feeble in him: the faculties of faith … and wisdom. Because of the feebleness of these five faculties, with the breakup of the body, he attains Nibbāna through volitional exertion. This is how a person, with the breakup of the body, attains Nibbāna through volitional exertion.

“And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbāna without volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the first jhāna … the fourth jhāna. He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the powers of faith… and wisdom. These five faculties are extremely strong in him: the faculties of faith … and wisdom. Because of the strength of these five faculties, in this very life he attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion. This is how a person, in this very life, attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion.

“And how, monks, does a person, with the breakup of the body, attain Nibbāna without volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the first jhāna … the fourth jhāna. He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the powers of faith … and wisdom. These five faculties are relatively feeble in him: the faculties of faith … and wisdom. Because of the feebleness of these five faculties, with the breakup of the body, he attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion. This is how a person, with the breakup of the body, attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion.

“These, monks, are the four kinds of persons found existing in the world.”

(AN 4:169; II 155–56)

(3) Six Things that Partake of True Knowledge

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Rājagaha in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary. Now on that occasion the lay follower Dīghāvu was sick, afflicted, gravely ill. Then the lay follower Dīghāvu addressed his father, the householder Jotika, thus: “Come, householder, approach the Blessed One, pay homage to him in my name with your head at his feet, and say: ‘Venerable sir, the lay follower Dīghāvu is sick, afflicted, gravely ill; he pays homage to the Blessed One with his head at the Blessed One’s feet.’ Then say: ‘It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would come to the residence of the lay follower Dīghāvu out of compassion.’”

“Yes, dear,” the householder Jotika replied, and he approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and delivered his message. The Blessed One consented by silence.

Then the Blessed One dressed and, taking bowl and robe, went to the residence of the lay follower Dīghāvu. He then sat down in the appointed seat and said to the lay follower Dīghāvu:

“I hope you are bearing up, Dīghāvu, I hope you are getting better. I hope your painful feelings are subsiding and not increasing, and that their subsiding, not their increase, is to be discerned.”

“Venerable sir, I am not bearing up, I am not getting better. Strong painful feelings are increasing in me, not subsiding, and their increase, not their subsiding, is to be discerned.”

“Therefore, Dīghāvu, you should train yourself thus: ‘I will be one who has confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who observes the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration.’ It is in such a way that you should train yourself.”

“Venerable sir, as to these four factors of stream-entry that have been taught by the Blessed One, these things exist in me, and I live in conformity with those things. For, venerable sir, I have confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and I observe the moral virtues dear to the noble ones.”

“Therefore, Dīghāvu, established upon these four factors of stream-entry, you should develop further six things that partake of true knowledge. Here, Dīghāvu, dwell contemplating impermanence in all formations, perceiving suffering in what is impermanent, perceiving nonself in what is suffering, perceiving abandonment, perceiving fading away, perceiving cessation.32 It is in such a way that you should train yourself.”

“Venerable sir, as to these six things that partake of true knowledge that have been taught by the Blessed One, these things exist in me, and I live in conformity with those things. For, venerable sir, I dwell contemplating impermanence in all formations, perceiving suffering in what is impermanent, perceiving nonself in what is suffering, perceiving abandonment, perceiving fading away, perceiving cessation. However, venerable sir, I hope that after I expire, my father won’t be distressed.”

“Don’t be concerned about this, dear Dīghāvu. Come now, dear Dīghāvu, pay close attention to what the Blessed One is saying to you.”

Then the Blessed One, having given this exhortation to the lay follower Dīghāvu, rose from his seat and departed. Then, not long after the Blessed One had left, the lay follower Dīghāvu died.

Then a number of monks approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, the lay follower Dīghāvu has died. What is his destination? Where was he reborn?”

“Monks, the lay follower Dīghāvu was wise. He practiced in accordance with the Dhamma and did not trouble me on account of the Dhamma. With the utter destruction of the five lower fetters, the lay follower Dīghāvu has become one of spontaneous birth [in the pure abodes], due to attain Nibbāna there without returning from that world.”

(SN 55:3; V 344–46)

(4) Five Kinds of Nonreturners

“Monks, when these seven factors of enlightenment have been developed and cultivated in this way, seven fruits and benefits may be expected. What are the seven fruits and benefits?

“One attains final knowledge (of arahantship) early in this very life.

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life, then one attains final knowledge at the time of death.

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life or at the time of death, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one attains Nibbāna in the interval.33

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life … or attain Nibbāna in the interval, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one attains Nibbāna upon landing.

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life … or attain Nibbāna upon landing, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion.

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life … or attain Nibbāna without volitional exertion, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one attains Nibbāna with volitional exertion.

“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life … or attain Nibbāna with volitional exertion, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes one bound upstream, heading toward the Akaniṭṭha realm.

“When, monks, the seven factors of enlightenment have been developed and cultivated in this way, these seven fruits and benefits may be expected.”

(SN 46:3; V 69–70)

4. THE ARAHANT

(1) Removing the Residual Conceit “I Am”

On one occasion a number of elder monks were dwelling at Kosambī in Ghosita’s Park. Now on that occasion the Venerable Khemaka was living at Jujube Tree Park, sick, afflicted, gravely ill.

Then, in the evening, those elder monks emerged from seclusion and addressed the Venerable Dāsaka thus:

“Come, friend Dāsaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: ‘The elders say to you, friend Khemaka: We hope that you are bearing up, friend, we hope that you are getting better. We hope that your painful feelings are subsiding and not increasing, and that their subsiding, not their increase, is to be discerned.’”

“Yes, friends,” the Venerable Dāsaka replied, and he approached the Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.

[The Venerable Khemaka answered:]

“I am not bearing up, friend, I am not getting better. Strong painful feelings are increasing in me, not subsiding, and their increase, not their subsiding, is to be discerned.”

Then the Venerable Dāsaka approached the elder monks and reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They told him:

“Come, friend Dāsaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: ‘The elders say to you, friend Khemaka: These five aggregates subject to clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. Does the Venerable Khemaka regard anything as self or as belonging to self among these five aggregates subject to clinging?’”

“Yes, friends,” the Venerable Dāsaka replied, and he approached the Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.

[The Venerable Khemaka replied:]

“These five aggregates subject to clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. Among these five aggregates subject to clinging, I do not regard anything as self or as belonging to self.”

Then the Venerable Dāsaka approached the elder monks and reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They replied:

“Come, friend Dāsaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: If the Venerable Khemaka does not regard anything among these five aggregates as self or as belonging to self, then he is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed.’”34

“Yes, friends,” the Venerable Dāsaka replied, and he approached the Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.

[The Venerable Khemaka replied:]

“These five aggregates subject to clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. I do not regard anything among these five aggregates subject to clinging as self or as belonging to self, yet I am not an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed. Friends, [the notion] ‘I am’ has not yet vanished in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, but I do not regard [anything among them] as ‘This I am.’”35

Then the Venerable Dāsaka approached the elder monks and reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They replied:

“Come, friend Dāsaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: ‘The elders say to you, friend Khemaka: Friend Khemaka, when you speak of this “I am”—what is it that you speak of as “I am”? Do you speak of form as “I am,” or do you speak of “I am” apart from form? Do you speak of feeling … of perception … of volitional formations … of consciousness as “I am,” or do you speak of “I am” apart from consciousness? When you speak of this “I am,” friend Khemaka, what is it that you speak of as “I am”?’”

“Yes, friends,” the Venerable Dāsaka replied, and he approached the Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.

“Enough, friend Dāsaka! Why keep running back and forth? Bring me my staff, friend. I’ll go to the elder monks myself.”

Then the Venerable Khemaka, leaning on his staff, approached the elder monks, exchanged greetings with them, and sat down to one side. The elder monks then said to him: “Friend Khemaka, when you speak of this ‘I am’ … what is it that you speak of as ‘I am’?”

“Friends, I do not speak of form as ‘I am,’ nor do I speak of ‘I am’ apart from form. I do not speak of feeling as ‘I am’ … nor of perception as ‘I am’ … nor of volitional formations as ‘I am’ … nor of consciousness as ‘I am,’ nor do I speak of ‘I am’ apart from consciousness. Friends, although [the notion] ‘I am’ has not yet vanished in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, still I do not regard [anything among them] as ‘This I am.’

“Suppose, friends, there is the scent of a blue, red, or white lotus. Would one be speaking rightly if one would say, ‘The scent belongs to the petals,’ or ‘The scent belongs to the stalk,’ or ‘The scent belongs to the pistils’?”

“No, friend.”

“And how, friends, should one answer if one is to answer rightly?”

“Answering rightly, friend, one should answer: ‘The scent belongs to the flower.’”

“So too, friends, I do not speak of form as ‘I am,’ nor do I speak of ‘I am’ apart from form. I do not speak of feeling as ‘I am’ … nor of perception as ‘I am’ … nor of volitional formations as ‘I am’ … nor of consciousness as ‘I am,’ nor do I speak of ‘I am’ apart from consciousness. Friends, although [the notion] ‘I am’ has not yet vanished in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, still I do not regard [anything among them] as ‘This I am.’

“Friends, even though a noble disciple has abandoned the five lower fetters, still, in relation to the five aggregates subject to clinging, there lingers in him a residual conceit ‘I am,’ a desire ‘I am,’ an underlying tendency ‘I am’ that has not yet been uprooted. Sometime later he dwells contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to clinging: ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling … such is perception … such are volitional formations … such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’ As he dwells thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to clinging, the residual conceit ‘I am,’ the desire ‘I am,’ the underlying tendency ‘I am’ that had not yet been uprooted—this comes to be uprooted.

“Suppose, friends, a cloth has become soiled and stained, and its owners give it to a laundryman. The laundryman would scour it evenly with cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung, and rinse it in clean water. Even though that cloth would become pure and clean, it would still retain a residual smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung that had not yet vanished. The laundryman would then give it back to the owners. The owners would put it in a sweet-scented chest, and the residual smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung that had not yet vanished would vanish.36

“So too, friends, even though a noble disciple has abandoned the five lower fetters, still, in relation to the five aggregates subject to clinging, there lingers in him a residual conceit ‘I am,’ a desire ‘I am,’ an underlying tendency ‘I am’ that has not yet been uprooted…. As he dwells thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to clinging, the residual conceit ‘I am,’ the desire ‘I am,’ the underlying tendency ‘I am’ that had not yet been uprooted—this comes to be uprooted.”

When this was said, the elder monks said to the Venerable Khemaka: “We did not ask our questions in order to trouble the Venerable Khemaka, but we thought that the Venerable Khemaka would be capable of explaining, teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, and elucidating the Blessed One’s teaching in detail. And the Venerable Khemaka has explained, taught, proclaimed, established, disclosed, analyzed, and elucidated the Blessed One’s teaching in detail.”

Thus the elder monks were elated and delighted in the Venerable Khemaka’s statement. And while this discourse was being spoken, the minds of sixty elder monks and of the Venerable Khemaka were liberated from the taints by nonclinging.

(SN 22:89; III 126–32)

(2) The Trainee and the Arahant

At Kosambī in Ghosita’s Park the Blessed One addressed the monks thus:

“There is a method, monks, by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, might understand: ‘I am a trainee,’ while a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, might understand: ‘I am one beyond training.’

“And what, monks, is the method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ‘I am a trainee’?

“Here, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands as it really is: ‘This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ This is a method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ‘I am a trainee.’

“Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee considers thus: ‘Is there outside here37 another ascetic or brahmin who teaches a Dhamma so real, true, and actual as the Blessed One does?’ He understands thus: ‘There is no other ascetic or brahmin outside here who teaches a Dhamma so real, true, and actual as the Blessed One does.’ This too is a method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ‘I am a trainee.’

“Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands the five spiritual faculties—the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. He does not yet dwell having contacted with the body that which is their destination, their culmination, their fruit, their final goal; but having pierced it through with wisdom, he sees.38 This too is a method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ‘I am a trainee.’

“And what, monks, is the method by means of which a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ‘I am one beyond training’? Here, monks, a monk beyond training understands the five spiritual faculties—the faculties of faith … wisdom. He dwells having contacted with the body that which is their destination, their culmination, their fruit, their final goal; and having pierced it through with wisdom, he sees. This is a method by means of which a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ‘I am one beyond training.’

“Again, monks, a monk beyond training understands the six faculties—the eye faculty, the ear faculty, the nose faculty, the tongue faculty, the body faculty, the mind faculty. He understands: ‘These six faculties will cease completely and totally without remainder, and no other six faculties will arise anywhere in any way.’ This too is a method by means of which a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ‘I am one beyond training.’”

(SN 48:53: V 229–30)

(3) A Monk Whose Crossbar Has Been Lifted

30. “Monks, an arahant is called one whose crossbar has been lifted, whose trench has been filled in, whose pillar has been uprooted, one who has no bolt, a noble one whose banner is lowered, whose burden is lowered, who is unfettered.

31. “And how is the arahant one whose crossbar has been lifted? Here the arahant has abandoned ignorance, has cut it off at the root, made it like a palm stump, done away with it, so that it is no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose crossbar has been lifted.

32. “And how is the arahant one whose trench has been filled in? Here the arahant has abandoned the round of rebirths, the process of renewed existence, has cut it off at the root … so that it is no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose trench has been filled in.

33. “And how is the arahant one whose pillar has been uprooted? Here the arahant has abandoned craving, has cut it off at the root … so that it is no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose pillar has been uprooted.

34. “And how is the arahant one who has no bolt? Here the monk has abandoned the five lower fetters, has cut them off at the root … so that they are no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one who has no bolt.

35. “And how is the arahant a noble one whose banner is lowered, whose burden is lowered, who is unfettered? Here the arahant has abandoned the conceit ‘I am,’ has cut it off at the root … so that it is no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is a noble one whose banner is lowered, whose burden is lowered, who is unfettered.”

(from MN 22: Alagaddūpama Sutta; I 139–40)

(4) Nine Things an Arahant Cannot Do

“In the past, and also now, I declare that a monk who is an arahant with taints destroyed—one who has lived the spiritual life, done his task, laid down the burden, attained his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and become liberated by final knowledge—is incapable of transgression in regard to nine things: he is incapable of destroying life, of taking what is not given, of engaging in the sexual act, of telling a deliberate lie, and of making use of stored-up enjoyments as he did in the past when he was a householder; further, he is incapable of taking a wrong course of action on account of desire, on account of hatred, on account of delusion, or on account of fear. In the past, and also now, I declare that a monk who is an arahant is incapable of transgression in regard to these nine things.”

(from AN 9:7; IV 370–71)

(5) A Mind Unshaken

[The Venerable Sāriputta said:]

“When, friend, a monk is thus liberated in mind, even if powerful forms cognizable by the eye come into range of his eye, they do not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to imperturbability, and he contemplates their fall. Even if powerful sounds cognizable by the ear … smells cognizable by the nose … flavors cognizable by the tongue … tactile objects cognizable by the body … mental phenomena cognizable by the mind come into range of his mind, they do not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to imperturbability, and he contemplates their fall. Suppose, friend, there were a stone pillar sixteen meters long, eight meters sunk in the ground and eight meters above the ground. Then a powerful rainstorm would come from the east: the pillar would not budge, would not shake, would not tremble. Then a powerful rainstorm would come from the north … from the west … from the south: the pillar would not budge, would not shake, would not tremble. Why not? Because of the depth of the base and because the stone pillar has been deeply planted. So too for a monk thus liberated in mind, if powerful sense objects come into range, they do not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to imperturbability, and he contemplates their fall.”

(from AN 9:26; IV 404–5)

(6) The Ten Powers of an Arahant Monk

The Buddha asked the Venerable Sāriputta:

“How many powers does an arahant monk have, Sāriputta, possessing which he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints?”

“The arahant monk has ten powers, venerable sir, possessing which he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints. What ten?

“Here, venerable sir, for an arahant monk all formations have been well seen as they really are with correct wisdom as impermanent. This is a power of an arahant monk on the basis of which he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints.

“Again, venerable sir, for an arahant monk sensual pleasures have been well seen as they really are with correct wisdom as similar to a charcoal pit. This too is a power of an arahant monk …

“Again, venerable sir, the mind of an arahant monk slants, slopes, and inclines to seclusion; it dwells in seclusion, delights in renunciation, and is entirely finished with all things that are a basis for the taints. This too is a power of an arahant monk.…

“Further, venerable sir, for an arahant monk the four establishments of mindfulness have been developed to the point that they are well developed. This too is a power of an arahant monk.…

“Further, venerable sir, for an arahant monk the four right kinds of striving … the four bases for spiritual power … the five spiritual faculties … the five powers … the seven factors of enlightenment … the Noble Eightfold Path has been developed to the point that it is well developed. This too is a power of an arahant monk on the basis of which he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints.”39

(AN 10:90; V 174–75)

(7) The Sage at Peace

20. [The Buddha further addressed Pukkusāti thus:] “Then [after contemplating the six elements], there remains only equanimity, purified and bright, malleable, wieldy, and radiant.40 …

21. “He understands thus: ‘If I were to direct this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of space and to develop my mind accordingly, then this equanimity of mine, supported by this base, clinging to it, would remain for a very long time.41 If I were to direct this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of consciousness … to the base of nothingness … to the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and to develop my mind accordingly, then this equanimity of mine, supported by this base, clinging to it, would remain for a very long time.’

22. “He understands thus: ‘If I were to direct this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of space and to develop my mind accordingly, this would be conditioned.42 If I were to direct this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of consciousness … to the base of nothingness … to the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and to develop my mind accordingly, this would be conditioned.’ He does not construct or generate any volition tending toward either existence or non-existence.43 Since he does not construct or generate any volition tending toward either existence or nonexistence, he does not cling to anything in this world. Not clinging, he is not agitated. Not being agitated, he personally attains Nibbāna. He understands: ‘Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.’44

23. “If he feels a pleasant feeling,45 he understands: ‘It is impermanent; there is no holding to it; there is no delight in it.’ If he feels a painful feeling, he understands: ‘It is impermanent; there is no holding to it; there is no delight in it.’ If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘It is impermanent; there is no holding to it; there is no delight in it.’

24. “If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it detached; if he feels a painful feeling, he feels it detached; if he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he feels it detached. When he feels a feeling terminating with the body, he understands: ‘I feel a feeling terminating with the body.’ When he feels a feeling terminating with life, he understands: ‘I feel a feeling terminating with life.’ He understands: ‘On the dissolution of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here.’46 Monk, just as an oil-lamp burns in dependence on oil and a wick, and when the oil and wick are used up, if it does not get any more fuel, it is extinguished from lack of fuel; so too when he feels a feeling terminating with the body … a feeling terminating with life, he understands: ‘I feel a feeling terminating with life.’ He understands: ‘On the dissolution of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here.’47

25. “Therefore a monk possessing [this wisdom] possesses the supreme foundation of wisdom. For this, monk, is the supreme noble wisdom, namely, the knowledge of the destruction of all suffering.

26. “His liberation, being founded upon truth, is unshakable. For that is false, monk, which has a deceptive nature, and that is true which has an undeceptive nature—Nibbāna. Therefore a monk possessing [this truth] possesses the supreme foundation of truth. For this, monk, is the supreme noble truth, namely, Nibbāna, which has an undeceptive nature.48

27. “Formerly, when he was ignorant, he undertook and accepted acquisitions;49 now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are no longer subject to future arising. Therefore a monk possessing [this relinquishment] possesses the supreme foundation of relinquishment. For this, monk, is the supreme noble relinquishment, namely, the relinquishing of all acquisitions.

28. “Formerly, when he was ignorant, he experienced covetousness, desire, and lust; now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are no longer subject to future arising. Formerly, when he was ignorant, he experienced anger, ill will, and hate; now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are no longer subject to future arising. Formerly, when he was ignorant, he experienced ignorance and delusion; now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are no longer subject to future arising. Therefore a monk possessing [this peace] possesses the supreme foundation of peace. For this, monk, is the supreme noble peace, namely, the pacification of lust, hate, and delusion.

29. “So it was with reference to this that it was said: ‘One should not neglect wisdom, should preserve truth, should cultivate relinquishment, and should train for peace.’

30. “‘The tides of conceiving do not sweep over one who stands upon these [foundations], and when the tides of conceiving no longer sweep over him he is called a sage at peace.’50 So it was said. And with reference to what was this said?

31. “Monk, ‘I am’ is a conceiving; ‘I am this’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall not be’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall have a physical form’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be formless’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be percipient’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be nonpercipient’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be neither-percipient-nor-nonpercipient’ is a conceiving.51 Conceiving is a disease, conceiving is a tumor, conceiving is a dart. By overcoming all conceivings, monk, one is called a sage at peace. And the sage at peace is not born, does not age, does not die; he is not shaken and does not yearn. For there is nothing present in him by which he might be born.52 Not being born, how could he age? Not aging, how could he die? Not dying, how could he be shaken? Not being shaken, why should he yearn?

32. “So it was with reference to this that it was said: ‘The tides of conceiving do not sweep over one who stands upon these [foundations], and when the tides of conceiving no longer sweep over him he is called a sage at peace.’”

(from MN 140: Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta; III 244–47)

(8) Happy Indeed Are the Arahants

Happy indeed are the arahants!
No craving can be found in them.
Cut off is the conceit “I am,”
Burst asunder is delusion’s net.

They have reached the unstirred state,
Limpid are their minds;
They are unsullied in the world—
The holy ones, without taints.

Having fully understood the five aggregates,
Ranging in the seven good qualities,53
Those praiseworthy superior persons
Are the Buddha’s bosom offspring.

Endowed with the seven gems,
Trained in the threefold training,54
Those great heroes wander about
With fear and trembling abandoned.

Endowed with the ten factors,
Those great nāgas, concentrated,
Are the best beings in the world:
No craving can be found in them.55

The adepts’ knowledge has arisen in them:
“This body is the last I bear.”
In regard to the core of the spiritual life
They no longer depend on others.

They do not waver in discrimination,56
They are released from renewed existence.
Having reached the stage of the tamed,
They are the victors in the world.

Above, across, and below,
Delight is no more found in them.
They boldly sound their lion’s roar:
“The enlightened are supreme in the world.”

(from SN 22:76; III 83–84)

5. THE TATHĀGATA

(1) The Buddha and the Arahant

“Monks, through disenchantment with form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, through their fading away and cessation, the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is liberated by nonclinging; he is called a Perfectly Enlightened One. Through disenchantment with form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, through their fading away and cessation, a monk liberated by wisdom is liberated by nonclinging; he is called one liberated by wisdom.57

“Therein, monks, what is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, and a monk liberated by wisdom?”

“Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided by the Blessed One, take recourse in the Blessed One. It would be good if the Blessed One would clear up the meaning of this statement. Having heard it from him, the monks will remember it.”

“Then listen and attend closely, monks, I will speak.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” the monks replied. The Blessed One said this:

“The Tathāgata, monks, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is the originator of the path unarisen before, the producer of the path unproduced before, the declarer of the path undeclared before. He is the knower of the path, the discoverer of the path, the one skilled in the path. And his disciples now dwell following that path and become possessed of it afterward.

“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, and a monk liberated by wisdom.”

(SN 22:58; III 65–66)

(2) For the Welfare of Many

“Monks, these three persons arise in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans. What three?

“Here, monks, a Tathāgata arises in the world, an arahant, perfectly enlightened … teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One. He teaches the Dhamma that is good at the beginning, good in the middle, good at the end, with the right meaning and phrasing; he reveals the spiritual life that is utterly perfect and pure. This, monks, is the first person that arises in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.

“Then, monks, a disciple of that teacher is an arahant with taints destroyed [as in Text X,1(3), §42} … completely liberated through final knowledge. He teaches the Dhamma that is good at the beginning … he reveals the spiritual life that is utterly perfect and pure. This, monks, is the second person that arises in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.

“Then, monks, a disciple of that teacher is a trainee practicing the path, learned and endowed with precepts and observances. He too teaches the Dhamma that is good at the beginning … he reveals the spiritual life that is utterly perfect and pure. This, monks, is the third person that arises in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.

“These, monks, are the three persons that arise in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.”

(It 84; 78–79)

(3) Sāriputta’s Lofty Utterance

The Venerable Sāriputta approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, I have such confidence in the Blessed One that I believe there has not been, nor ever will be, nor exists at present another ascetic or brahmin more knowledgeable than the Blessed One with respect to enlightenment.”58

“Lofty indeed is this bellowing utterance of yours, Sāriputta, you have roared a definitive lion’s roar. Have you now, Sāriputta, encompassed with your mind the minds of all the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones, arisen in the past and known thus: ‘Those Blessed Ones were of such moral discipline, or of such qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such liberation’?”59

“No, venerable sir.”

“Then, Sāriputta, have you encompassed with your mind the minds of all the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones, who will arise in the future and known thus: ‘Those Blessed Ones will be of such moral discipline, or of such qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such liberation’?”

“No, venerable sir.”

“Then, Sāriputta, have you encompassed with your mind my own mind—I being at present the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One—and known thus: ‘The Blessed One is of such moral discipline, or of such qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such liberation’?”

“No, venerable sir.”

“Sāriputta, when you do not have any knowledge encompassing the minds of the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past, the future, and the present, why do you utter this lofty, bellowing utterance and roar this definitive lion’s roar: ‘Venerable sir, I have such confidence in the Blessed One that I believe there has not been, nor ever will be, nor exists at present another ascetic or brahmin more knowledgeable than the Blessed One with respect to enlightenment’?”

“I do not have, venerable sir, any knowledge encompassing the minds of the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past, the future, and the present, but still I have understood this by inference from the Dhamma. Suppose, venerable sir, a king had a frontier city with strong ramparts, walls, and arches, and a single gate. The gatekeeper posted there would be wise, competent, and intelligent; one who keeps out strangers and admits acquaintances. While he is walking along the path that encircles the city he would not see a cleft or an opening in the walls even big enough for a cat to slip through. He might think: ‘Whatever large creatures enter or leave this city, all enter and leave through this one gate.’

“So too, venerable sir, I have understood this by inference from the Dhamma: Whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones arose in the past, all those Blessed Ones had first abandoned the five hindrances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with their minds well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, developed correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby they had awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. And, venerable sir, whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones will arise in the future, all those Blessed Ones will first abandon the five hindrances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with their minds well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, will develop correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby they will awaken to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. And, venerable sir, the Blessed One, at present the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, first abandoned the five hindrances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with his mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, developed correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby he has awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment.”

“Good, good, Sāriputta! Therefore, Sāriputta, you should repeat this Dhamma exposition frequently to the monks and the nuns, to the male lay followers and the female lay followers. Even though some foolish people may have perplexity or uncertainty regarding the Tathāgata, when they hear this Dhamma exposition their perplexity or uncertainty will be abandoned.”

(SN 47:12; V 159–61)

(4) The Powers and Grounds of Self-Confidence

9. “Sāriputta, the Tathāgata has these ten Tathāgata’s powers, possessing which he claims the place of the chief of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā.60 What are the ten?

10. (1) “Here, the Tathāgata correctly understands the possible as possible and the impossible as impossible.61 And that is a Tathāgata’s power that the Tathāgata has, by virtue of which he claims the place of the chief of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā.

11. (2) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the results of actions undertaken, past, future, and present by way of possibilities and causes. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…62

12. (3) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the ways leading everywhere. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…63

13. (4) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the world with its many and different elements. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…

14. (5) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands how beings have different inclinations. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…64

15. (6) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the disposition of the faculties of other beings, other persons. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…65

16. (7) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the defilement, the cleansing, and the emergence in regard to the jhānas, liberations, concentrations, and attainments. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…66

17. (8) “Again, the Tathāgata recollects his manifold past lives with their aspects and particulars. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…

18. (9) “Again, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, the Tathāgata sees beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings pass on according to their actions. That too is a Tathāgata’s power…

19. (10) “Again, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, the Tathāgata in this present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints. That too is a Tathāgata’s power that the Tathāgata has, by virtue of which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā.

20. “The Tathāgata has these ten Tathāgata’s powers, possessing which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā.…

22. “Sāriputta, the Tathāgata has these four grounds of self-confidence,67 possessing which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā. What are the four?

23. “Here, I see no ground on which any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Māra or Brahmā or anyone else at all in the world could, in accordance with the Dhamma, accuse me thus: ‘While you claim to be perfectly enlightened, you are not perfectly enlightened about these things.’ And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-confidence.

24. “I see no ground on which any ascetic … or anyone at all could accuse me thus: ‘While you claim to be one who has destroyed the taints, you have not destroyed these taints.’ And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-confidence.

25. “I see no ground on which any ascetic … or anyone at all could accuse me thus: ‘Those things called obstructions by you are not able to obstruct one who engages in them.’ And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-confidence.

26. “I see no ground on which any ascetic … or anyone at all could accuse me thus: ‘When you teach the Dhamma to someone, it does not lead him when he practices it to the complete destruction of suffering.’ And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and selfconfidence.

27. “A Tathāgata has these four kinds of self-confidence, possessing which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahmā.”

(from MN 12: Mahāsīhanāda Sutta; I 70–72)

(5) The Manifestation of Great Light

“Monks, so long as the sun and moon have not arisen in the world, for just so long there is no manifestation of great light and radiance, but then blinding darkness prevails, a dense mass of darkness; for just so long day and night are not discerned, the month and fortnight are not discerned, the seasons and the year are not discerned. But, monks, when the sun and moon arise in the world, then there is the manifestation of great light and radiance; then there is no blinding darkness, no dense mass of darkness; then day and night are discerned, the month and fortnight are discerned, the seasons and year are discerned.

“So too, monks, so long as a Tathāgata has not arisen in the world, an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One, for just so long there is no manifestation of great light and radiance, but then blinding darkness prevails, a dense mass of darkness; for just so long there is no explaining, teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, or elucidating of the Four Noble Truths. But, monks, when a Tathāgata arises in the world, an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One, then there is the manifestation of great light and radiance; then no blinding darkness prevails, no dense mass of darkness; then there is the explaining, teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, and elucidating of the Four Noble Truths.”

(SN 56:38; V 442–43)

(6) The Man Desiring Our Good

25. “Suppose, monks, that in a wooded range there were a great low-lying marsh near which a large herd of deer lived. Then a man appeared desiring their ruin, harm, and bondage, and he closed off the safe and good path to be traveled joyfully, and he opened up a false path, and he put out a decoy and set up a dummy so that the large herd of deer might later come upon calamity, disaster, and loss. But another man came desiring their good, welfare, and protection, and he reopened the safe and good path to be traveled joyfully, and he closed off the false path, and he removed the decoy and destroyed the dummy, so that the large herd of deer might later come to growth, increase, and fulfillment.

26. “Monks, I have given this simile in order to convey a meaning. This is the meaning: ‘The great low-lying marsh’ is a term for sensual pleasures. ‘The large herd of deer’ is a term for beings. ‘The man desiring their ruin, harm, and bondage’ is a term for Māra the Evil One. ‘The false path’ is a term for the wrong eightfold path, that is: wrong view, wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concentration. ‘The decoy’ is a term for delight and lust. ‘The dummy’ is a term for ignorance. ‘The man desiring their good, welfare, and protection’ is a term for the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. ‘The safe and good path to be traveled joyfully’ is a term for the Noble Eightfold Path, that is: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

“So, monks, the safe and good path to be traveled joyfully has been reopened by me, the wrong path has been closed off, the decoy removed, the dummy destroyed.”

(from MN 19: Dvedhāvitakka Sutta; I 117–18)

(7) The Lion

“Monks, in the evening the lion, the king of beasts, comes out from his lair. He then stretches himself, surveys the four quarters all around, and roars his lion’s roar three times, after which he sets out in search of game.

“When the lion, the king of beasts, roars its lion’s roar, most of the animals that hear the sound are filled with fear, a sense of urgency, and terror. Those who live in holes enter their holes; those who live in the water enter the water; those who live in the woods enter the woods; and the birds fly up into the air. Even those royal bull elephants, bound by strong thongs in the villages, towns, and capital cities, burst and break their bonds asunder; frightened, they urinate and defecate and flee here and there. So powerful among the animals, monks, is the lion, the king of beasts, so majestic and mighty.

“So too, monks, when the Tathāgata arises in the world, an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One, he teaches the Dhamma thus: ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling … such is perception … such are volitional formations … such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’

“Then, monks, when those devas who are long-lived, beautiful, abounding in happiness, dwelling for a long time in lofty palaces, hear the Tathāgata’s teaching of the Dhamma, most68 are filled with fear, a sense of urgency, and terror, [saying]: ‘It seems, though we thought ourselves permanent, that we are impermanent; it seems, though we thought ourselves stable, that we are unstable; it seems, though we thought ourselves eternal, that we are transient. It seems, sir, that we are impermanent, unstable, transient, included within identity.’69

So powerful, monks, is the Tathāgata over this world together with its devas, so majestic and mighty.”

(SN 22:78: III 84–85)

(8) Why Is He Called the Tathāgata?

“The world, monks, has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata; the Tathāgata is detached from the world. The origin of the world has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata; the Tathāgata has abandoned the origin of the world. The cessation of the world has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata; the Tathāgata has realized the cessation of the world. The way to the cessation of the world has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata; the Tathāgata has developed the way to the cessation of the world.

“In the world, monks, with its devas, with Māra, with Brahmā, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and humans, whatever there is that is seen, heard, sensed, cognized, reached, sought after, examined by the mind, all that has been awakened to by the Tathāgata; therefore he is called the Tathāgata.

“From the night he fully awakened, monks, until the night he attains final Nibbāna, in this interval, whatever he speaks, talks of, and expounds, all that is just so, not otherwise; therefore he is called the Tathāgata.

“As he speaks, monks, so he does; as he does, so he speaks. Since he does as he speaks and speaks as he does, therefore he is called the Tathāgata.

“In this world, monks, with its devas, with Māra, with Brahmā, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and humans, the Tathāgata is the vanquisher, the unvanquished, the universal seer, the wielder of mastery; therefore he is called the Tathāgata.”

Having directly known all the world,
All in the world exactly as it is,
He is detached from all the world,
Unengaged with all the world.

He indeed is the all-vanquishing sage,
The one released from all the knots,
Who has reached the supreme state of peace,
Nibbāna, without fear from any side.

He is the Buddha, with taints destroyed,
Untroubled, with all doubts cut off,
Who has attained the destruction of all kamma,
Liberated in the extinction of acquisitions.

He is the Blessed One, the Buddha,
He is the lion, unsurpassed,
In this world together with its devas,
He set in motion the wheel of Brahmā.

Thus those devas and human beings
Who have gone for refuge to the Buddha,
Having assembled, pay homage to him,
The great one free from diffidence.

“Tamed, he is supreme among those who tame;
At peace, he is the sage among those who bring peace;
Freed, he is the chief of those who set free;
Delivered, he is the best of those who deliver.”

Thus indeed they pay homage to him,
The great one free from diffidence.
In this world together with its devas,
There is no one who can rival you.

(AN 4:23; II 23–24 = It 112; 121–23)

___________________

Notes:

1.The terminology of “path” and “fruition” is a commentarial way of drawing the distinction. The suttas themselves do not use the scheme of four “paths” but speak only of one path, the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the cessation of suffering. This is also called the arahattamagga, the path to arahantship, but in a broad sense, as the path to the highest goal, not in the narrow sense of the path preceding the fruit of arahantship. However, the suttas do make a distinction between the person practicing for the attainment of a particular fruit (phala-sacchikiriyāya paṭipanna) and the person who has attained the stage that results from this practice (see Text X,1(1)). Based on this distinction, the commentarial terminology of path and fruit is useful as a concise way of referring to the two phases of the Nikāya scheme.

2.My explanation of the once-returner’s attenuation of lust, hatred, and defilements is based on the commentaries. Apart from the standard formula, the suttas themselves say very little about the once-returner.

3.It is also important to note that the suttas imply that the dhammānusārī and saddhānusārī remain thus for an extended period of time. The position of the suttas seems to contradict the commentarial idea that a path-attainer is such only for a single mind-moment. If the latter were the case, this would mean that a dhammānusārī and saddhānusārī are such for only a single mind-moment, and this seems hard to square with sutta statements to the effect that they receive gifts, resort to lodgings in the forest, etc.

4.The commentarial method of explanation stipulates that the meditator emerges from the jhāna attainment and practices insight contemplation with a mind made sharp and supple by the jhāna. However, the suttas themselves say nothing about emerging from the jhāna. If one reads the suttas alone, without the commentaries, it seems as if the meditator examines the factors within the jhāna itself.

5.As the arahants have achieved liberation from the round of existence, it is impossible to point to any place within the round where they might appear; hence they have no future round for manifestation.

6.The “five lower fetters” (pañc’ orambhāgiyāni saṃyojanāni) are: identity view, doubt, grasping of rules and observances, sensual lust, and ill will. Those who are spontaneously reborn (opapātika) take rebirth without dependence on a mother and father.

7.The “three fetters” are the first three of the five fetters, just above. “Fixed in destiny” (niyata) means that the stream-enterer is bound to reach liberation in at most seven more lives passed either in the human world or in celestial realms. Enlightenment (sambodhi) is the arahant’s full and final knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.

8.On the distinction between these two types, see below, Text X,1(5) §§20–21 and Text X,2(2).

9.Ps says that this refers to persons devoted to the practice of insight who have not reached any supramundane realization but possess strong conviction in the truth of the Dhamma. The words saddhāmattaṃ pemamattaṃ might have been translated “mere faith, mere love,” but such qualities could not guarantee a rebirth in heaven. It thus seems necessary to take the suffix–matta as implying a sufficient amount of these qualities, not simply their mere existence.

10.The Buddha is here speaking with the wanderer Vacchagotta (see Text IX,5(6)). Ps says that Vacchagotta thought the Buddha may have been the only one within his community to have attained the final goal.

11.This question and the one in §11 concern the nonreturner. Note that nonreturners observe celibacy.

12.This question and the one in §12 concern stream-enterers and once-returners. Since they are described as enjoying sensual pleasures, this means that they are not obliged to observe celibacy.

13.Ubhatobhāgavimutta. Ps: He is liberated in both ways because he is liberated from the form body by the formless attainments and from the mental body by the path of arahantship.

The dual liberation of the “both-ways-liberated” arahant should not be confused with the “taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom” (anāsavā cetovimutti paññāvimutti), which is shared by all arahants, regardless of whether or not they attain the formless attainments.

14.Paññāvimutta. Ps says this includes those who attain any of the four jhānas as well as the dry-insight arahant. A dry-insight arahant is not explicitly recognized in the Nikāyas.

15.Kāyasakkhī. This includes all those from persons on the path to arahantship down to stream-enterers who attain the formless attainments.

16.Diṭṭhippatta. This includes the same classes who do not attain the formless attainments and in whom wisdom is the dominant faculty.

17.Saddhāvimutta. This includes the same classes in whom faith is the dominant faculty.

18.Dhammānusārī. This type and the next, the saddhānusārī, are the two kinds of persons practicing for realization of the fruit of stream-entry. See p. 375 and Text X,2(2).

19.Sammattaniyāma: the supramundane Noble Eightfold Path.

20.Contrary to the commentaries, which hold that the path-attainer realizes the fruit immediately after attaining the path, the Nikāyas say merely that one who reaches the stage of Dhamma-follower or faith-follower (corresponding to the commentarial notion of path-attainer) will realize the fruit within this same life—but not necessarily in the next mind-moment. The two positions might be reconciled if we see the path of the Dhamma-follower and faith-follower as extended in time but reaching its climax in an instantaneous breakthrough that is immediately followed by realization of the fruit.

21.This statement makes it clear how the stream-enterer differs from those on the path to stream-entry. The faith-follower accepts the teaching on trust (with a limited degree of understanding), the Dhamma-follower accepts it through investigation (with a greater degree of understanding); but the stream-enterer has directly known and seen the teaching.

22.The breakthrough to the Dhamma (dhammābhisamaya) and the gaining of the vision of the Dhamma (dhammacakkhupaṭilābha) are synonyms signifying the attainment of stream-entry.

23.Aveccappasāda. Spk explains this as unshakable confidence gained through what has been attained, namely, stream-entry.

24.The hells, the animal realm, and the sphere of afflicted spirits are themselves the plane of misery, the bad destinations, and the lower world.

25.Identity (sakkāya) is the composite of the five aggregates that we identify as our “self.” The cessation of identity is Nibbāna.

26.Upadhi. In the present context, this word seems to mean material possessions.

27.Of these eleven attributes, “impermanent” and “disintegrating” illustrate the characteristic of impermanence; “alien,” “empty,” and “nonself,” the characteristic of nonself; the other six, the characteristic of suffering.

28.Ps: He turns his mind away from the five aggregates included within the jhāna, which he has seen to be marked with the three characteristics. The “deathless element” (amatadhātu) is Nibbāna. First, he “directs his mind to it” with the insight consciousness, having heard it praised as “peaceful and sublime,” and so forth. Then, with the supramundane path, he “directs his mind to it” by making it an object and penetrating it as “peaceful and sublime,” and so forth.

29.Dhammarāgena dhammanandiyā. It seems that this desire for the Dhamma and delight in the Dhamma do two things simultaneously: (1) because they are directed toward the Dhamma, they propel the disciple to the destruction of the five lower fetters; (2) because they are still desire and delight, they prevent the attainment of arahantship.

30.Here, in the formless attainments, the sutta mentions only the four mental aggregates. The aggregate of form is excluded.

31.These are meditation subjects that lead to disenchantment and dispassion. The unattractiveness of the body is at Text VIII,8 §10; the reflection on the repulsiveness of food is explained at Vism 341–47 (Ppn 11:1–26); the perception of death, at Vism 229–39 (Ppn 8:1–41); and the perception of discontent with the entire world, and the contemplation of impermanence in all formations, at AN 10:60; V 111.

32.At AN V 110, the perception of abandonment (pahānasaññā) is explained as the removal of defiled thoughts. At AN V 110–11, the perception of dispassion (virāgasaññā) and the perception of cessation (nirodhasaññā) are both explained as reflections on the attributes of Nibbāna.

33.Spk explains the antarparinibbāyı (“one who attains Nibbāna in the interval”) as one reborn in the pure abodes who attains arahantship during the first half of the lifespan. This type is subdivided into three, depending on whether arahantship is reached: (1) on the very day of rebirth; (2) after one or two hundred eons have elapsed; or (3) after four hundred eons have elapsed. The upahaccaparinibbāyı (“one who attains Nibbāna upon landing”) is explained as one who attains arahantship after passing the first half of the lifespan. For Spk, the asaṅkhāraparinibbāyı (“one who attains without exertion”) and the sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyı (“one who attains with exertion”) then become two modes in which the first two types of nonreturners attain the goal, respectively, easily and without strong effort, and with difficulty and strong effort. However, this account of the first two types disregards the literal meaning of their names and also overrides the sequential and mutually exclusive nature of the five types as delineated elsewhere in the suttas.

If we understand the term antarāparinibbāyī literally, as it seems we should, it then means one who attains Nibbāna in the interval between two lives, perhaps while existing in a subtle body in the intermediate state. The upahaccaparinibbāyī then becomes one who attains Nibbāna “upon landing” or “striking ground” in the new existence, i.e., almost immediately after taking rebirth. The next two terms designate two types who attain arahantship in the course of the next life, distinguished by the amount of effort they must make to win the goal. The last, the uddhaṃsota akaniṭṭhagāmī, is one who takes rebirth in successive pure abodes, completes the full lifespan in each, and finally attains arahantship in the akaniṭṭha realm, the highest pure abode. This interpretation, though contrary to the Pāli commentaries, seems to be confirmed by AN 7:52 (IV 70–74), in which the simile of the flaming chip suggests that the seven types (including the three kinds of antarāparinibbāyī) are mutually exclusive and have been graded according to the sharpness of their faculties.

34.In declaring that he does not recognize a self or the belongings of a self among the five aggregates, Khemaka has implicitly declared that he has attained at least the level of a stream-enterer. But the other monks did not realize that all the noble persons share this understanding and assumed this was the unique realization of the arahant. Thus they misinterpreted Khemaka’s statement as insinuating that he had attained arahantship.

35.Although all three eds. of SN that I consulted (Be, Ce, and Ee) and both eds. of Spk (Be and Ce) read asmī ti adhigataṃ, I suspect this is an archaic corruption that has gained currency. I propose reading asmī ti avigataṃ. The passage clarifies an essential difference between the trainee (sekha) and the arahant. While the sekha has eliminated identity view and thus no longer identifies any of the five aggregates as a self, he has not yet eradicated ignorance, which sustains a residual conceit and desire “I am” (anusahagato asmī ti māno asmī ti chando) in relation to the five aggregates. The arahant, in contrast, has eradicated ignorance, the root of all misconceptions, and thus no longer entertains any ideas of “I” and “mine.” The other elders apparently had not yet attained any stage of awakening and thus did not understand this difference, but the Venerable Khemaka must have been at least a stream-enterer (some commentators say he was a nonreturner) and thus knew that the elimination of identity view does not completely remove the sense of personal identity. Even for the nonreturner, an “odor of subjectivity” based on the five aggregates still lingers over his experience.

36.Spk: The worldling’s mental process is like the soiled cloth. The three contemplations (of impermanence, suffering, and nonself) are like the three cleansers. The mental process of the nonreturner is like the cloth that has been washed with the three cleansers. The defilements to be eradicated by the path of arahantship are like the residual smell of the cleansers. The knowledge of the path of arahantship is like the sweetly scented chest, and the destruction of all defilements by that path is like the vanishing of the residual smell of the cleansers from the cloth after it has been placed in the chest.

37.That is, outside the Buddha’s teaching.

38.As I understand it, “that which is their destination … their final goal” is Nibbāna. We have here another essential difference between the trainee and the arahant: the trainee sees Nibbāna, the destination of the five faculties, that in which they culminate, their fruit and final goal; however, he cannot “contact it with the body,” cannot enter upon the full experience of it. In contrast, the arahant both sees the final goal and can fully experience it here and now.

39.These are the thirty-seven bodhipakkhiyā dhammā, lit. “states pertaining to enlightenment,” more freely: “aids to enlightenment.” On the four establishments of mindfulness, see Text VII,2 and Text VIII,8 for details and SN chapter 47. The four right kinds of striving are equivalent to right effort, for which see Text VII,2 and SN chapter 49. The four bases for spiritual power are: concentration due to (1) desire, or (2) energy, or (3) mind, or (4) investigation, with volitional forces of striving; see SN chapter 51. The five faculties are at Text X,1(2); see SN chapter 48 for details. The five powers are the same five factors as the faculties, but with greater strength. The seven factors of enlightenment are at Text VIII,9; see SN chapter 46. The Noble Eightfold Path is at Text VII,2; see SN chapter 45.

40.Ps identifies this as the equanimity of the fourth jhāna. Ps says that Pukkusāti had already achieved the fourth jhāna and was deeply attached to it. The Buddha first praises this equanimity to inspire Pukkusāti’s confidence, and then gradually guides him to the formless attainments and the supramundane paths and fruits.

41.The sense is: If he attains the base of the infinity of space and passes away while still attached to it, he would be reborn in the plane of the infinity of space and would live there for the full lifespan of 20,000 eons specified for that plane. In the higher three formless planes the lifespan is said to be, respectively, 40,000 eons, 60,000 eons, and 84,000 eons.

42.Ps: This is said in order to show the danger in the formless attainments. By the one phrase, “This would be conditioned,” he shows: “Even though the lifespan there is 20,000 eons, it is conditioned, fashioned, built up. It is thus impermanent, unstable, not lasting, transient. It is subject to perishing, breaking up, and dissolution; it is involved with birth, aging, and death, founded upon suffering. It is not a shelter, a place of safety, a refuge. Having passed away there as a worldling, one can still be reborn in the four states of misery.”

43.So n’eva abhisaṅkharoti nābhisañcetayati bhavāya vā vibhavāya. The two verbs suggest the notion of volition as a constructive power that builds up and sustains conditioned existence. Ceasing to will for either existence or nonexistence shows the extinction of craving for eternal existence and annihilation.

44.Ps says that at this point Pukkusāti penetrated three paths and fruits, becoming a nonreturner. He realized that his teacher was the Buddha himself, but he could not express this realization since the Buddha continued with his discourse.

45.This passage shows the arahant’s abiding in the Nibbāna element with residue remaining (sa-upādisesa nibbānadhātu); see Text IX,5(5). Though he continues to experience feelings, he is free from lust toward pleasant feeling, from aversion toward painful feeling, and from ignorance regarding neutral feeling.

46.That is, he continues to experience feeling only as long as the body with its life faculty continues, but not beyond that.

47.This refers to his attainment of the Nibbāna-element with no residue remaining (anupādisesa nibbānadhātu)—the cessation of all conditioned existence with his final passing away. See Text IX,5(5).

48.This completes the exposition of the first foundation, the foundation of wisdom (paññādhiṭṭhāna). Ps says that the knowledge of the destruction of all suffering is the wisdom pertaining to the fruit of arahantship.

49.Ps mentions four kinds of acquisitions (upadhi) here: the five aggregates; defilements; volitional formations; and sensual pleasures.

50.The “tides of conceiving” (maññussavā), as the following paragraph will show, are thoughts and notions originating from the three roots of conceiving—craving, conceit, and views. The “sage at peace” (muni santo) is the arahant.

51.The thoughts “I shall be” and “I shall not be” imply the views of eternalism (continued existence after death) and annihilationism (personal extinction at death). The alternatives of having physical form and being formless represent two modes of existence in the afterlife, physical and disembodied; the triad of being percipient, etc., are three other modes of existence in the afterlife, distinguished by their relationship to perception or awareness.

52.That which is not present in him is craving for existence, which leads to a new birth following death.

53.Satta saddhammā. Faith, moral shame, fear of wrongdoing, learning, energy, mindfulness, and wisdom. See, e.g., MN 53.11–17.

54.The training in the higher moral discipline, the higher mind, and the higher wisdom.

55.The ten factors are the eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path supplemented by right knowledge and right liberation. See, e.g., MN 65.34 and MN 78.14.

56.The threefold discrimination: “I am better,” “I am equal,” “I am worse.”

57.It is likely that bhikkhu paññāvimutto here should be understood as any arahant disciple, not specifically as the paññāvimutta contrasted with the ubhatobhāgavimutta arahant.

58.This sutta is included in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (at DN II 81–83), but without the last paragraph. A much more elaborate version makes up DN 28.

59.Spk identifies “of such qualities” (evaṃdhammā) as “qualities pertaining to concentration” (samādhipakkhā dhammā).

60.The ten Tathāgata’s powers are powers of knowledge. They are analyzed in detail at Vibh §§808–31. The “wheel of Brahmā” is the wheel of the Dhamma.

61.For details, see MN 115.12–19.

62.Ps explains possibility (ṭhāna) as the realm, circumstances, time, and effort, factors that can either impede or reinforce the result. The cause (hetu) is the kamma itself. This knowledge of the Buddha is illustrated by Texts V,1(1)–(3).

63.This signifies the Buddha’s knowledge of the types of conduct that lead to all future destinies within the round of existence as well as to final liberation. See MN 12.35–42.

64.Vibh §813 explains that he understands that beings are of inferior and superior inclinations, and that beings naturally associate with those of similar inclinations.

65.Vibh §§814–27 gives a detailed analysis. Ps states more concisely that he knows the superior and inferior disposition of the five faculties of other beings.

66.Vibh §828: The defilement (saṅkilesa) is a factor causing decline; cleansing (vodāna) is a factor causing excellence; emergence (vuṭṭhāna) is both cleansing and rising from an attainment. The eight emancipations (vimokkha) are at DN 15.35, DN 16.3.33, MN 77.22, MN 137.26, etc.; the nine attainments (samāpatti) are the four jhānas, four formless attainments, and the cessation of perception and feeling.

67.Vesārajja. Ps says this is a name for the joyful knowledge that arises in him when he reflects upon his absence of timidity in four cases.

68.Spk says this qualification is made to exclude the devas who are noble ones.

69.Spk: Included within identity (sakkāyapariyāpannā): included in the five aggregates. When the Buddha teaches them the Dhamma stamped with the three characteristics, exposing the faults in the round of existence, the fear of knowledge enters into them.

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